visual frames/framing
Visual frames of the dark side span an enormous spectrum which serve various rhetorical functions. From art to film to photography, each medium is framed in a specific way to serve a purpose. The artist paints a mural on a government building to raise awareness or inspire outrage. The atrocity photograph may be used as evidence to ignite change, or it may be used as an apparatus of control. Photographs oftentimes generate anonymous victims of distant suffering who “need to be liberated” in order to support foreign policy. News frames create spectacles and uses buzzwords, and film makers design compose images in a way that leads the viewer to “fill in the gaps” perceptually by providing a limited amount of information. Frames are methodically constructed in order to elicit a desired response.
In terms of propaganda, film remains an extremely important medium that oftentimes goes undetected. It uses a sociological scientific approach to instill a particular ideology into a culture through a slow process of saturation. Narrative film has the power to shape the rhetorical culture by reinforcing nationalist, racist, xenophobic, etc. ideologies. For instance, Joseph Goebbels recognized the power of narrative film and used this medium to reinforce the notion that the Aryan race was superior. Those in charge of running the propaganda machine (e.g. Goebbels) have the ability to “program” the masses beginning at a young, impressionable age. The danger lies in the calculated nature of these subliminal messages: most people watch narrative films for entertainment, so one might not suspect the use of persuasive appeals in an action movie.
In contrast, a documentary film uses a more straightforward approach to swaying the audience. Adolf Hitler preferred the use of documentary films whereas Goebbels believed narrative films were more effective: it is easier to manipulate the viewer if they remain oblivious to the intent of the rhetor.
In all films—whether these are narrative or documentary—viewers are “led” by the director. S/he directs viewers to follow the narrative through a sequence of shots that create a cohesive beginning, middle, and end. Documentaries such as PBS’ American Experience: My Lai are somewhat misleading in the sense that we oftentimes think that these are objective representations of the truth. But even the most straightforward documentary uses rhetorical devices to persuade an audience.
In terms of propaganda, film remains an extremely important medium that oftentimes goes undetected. It uses a sociological scientific approach to instill a particular ideology into a culture through a slow process of saturation. Narrative film has the power to shape the rhetorical culture by reinforcing nationalist, racist, xenophobic, etc. ideologies. For instance, Joseph Goebbels recognized the power of narrative film and used this medium to reinforce the notion that the Aryan race was superior. Those in charge of running the propaganda machine (e.g. Goebbels) have the ability to “program” the masses beginning at a young, impressionable age. The danger lies in the calculated nature of these subliminal messages: most people watch narrative films for entertainment, so one might not suspect the use of persuasive appeals in an action movie.
In contrast, a documentary film uses a more straightforward approach to swaying the audience. Adolf Hitler preferred the use of documentary films whereas Goebbels believed narrative films were more effective: it is easier to manipulate the viewer if they remain oblivious to the intent of the rhetor.
In all films—whether these are narrative or documentary—viewers are “led” by the director. S/he directs viewers to follow the narrative through a sequence of shots that create a cohesive beginning, middle, and end. Documentaries such as PBS’ American Experience: My Lai are somewhat misleading in the sense that we oftentimes think that these are objective representations of the truth. But even the most straightforward documentary uses rhetorical devices to persuade an audience.
Making a narrative film or documentary involves a process of multimodal composition. The creators move through multiple phases of production that reflect a scaffolding process: writing a script, fund-raising, preparing for the shoot (finding film locations, designing a set, memorizing lines), shooting on the set, and assembling all of the pieces together. This entire process must occur before distributors release the film to the public sphere. Viewers get to enjoy the final product without thinking about the arduous process that goes into composing the film. Why is it important to bear in mind the formal systems that underlie the various genres of war rhetoric we have discussed throughout the semester?
Narrative film as a formal convention includes various principles: function, similarity and proximity, difference and variation, development, and unity and disunity. Each element serves a specific function that contributes to the larger structure or system. Plot, character, dialogue, lighting, costume, set design, special effects, make up, sound—all of these stylistic elements work in tandem to shape a cohesive narrative (Bordwell and Thompson 66-70). For example, in “Why We Fight?” what is the purpose of the woman in red? What role does she play in revealing something significant about Captain Nixon and his ongoing conflict? Here we have a nameless character, and yet there is an extremely important function to her presence in the film. The shots taken in her home serve a purpose: what is Nixon doing there? What is the smashing of the picture intended to convey? Why the use of the color red? What does the silent gaze shared by Nixon and the woman in red emphasize? Why use a shot of a dog barking as Nixon walks out the door? How do these rhetorical decisions move the narrative forward?
Narrative film as a formal convention includes various principles: function, similarity and proximity, difference and variation, development, and unity and disunity. Each element serves a specific function that contributes to the larger structure or system. Plot, character, dialogue, lighting, costume, set design, special effects, make up, sound—all of these stylistic elements work in tandem to shape a cohesive narrative (Bordwell and Thompson 66-70). For example, in “Why We Fight?” what is the purpose of the woman in red? What role does she play in revealing something significant about Captain Nixon and his ongoing conflict? Here we have a nameless character, and yet there is an extremely important function to her presence in the film. The shots taken in her home serve a purpose: what is Nixon doing there? What is the smashing of the picture intended to convey? Why the use of the color red? What does the silent gaze shared by Nixon and the woman in red emphasize? Why use a shot of a dog barking as Nixon walks out the door? How do these rhetorical decisions move the narrative forward?
The use of mirrors also serves an important function. The first time viewers see Captain Nixon in the flashback, the cinematographer hones in on Vat 69, then follows him as he pours himself a drink and stares at himself in the mirror. His reflection in the shot may seem arbitrary. However, mirrors serve numerous functions in a film: it can reveal the duplicity of a character such as hidden vanity or malevolence; it can be used to remind characters of the past, or as a "reveal" to help them see who they really are or who they have become (Robbins par. 1-3). In this instance, what is the function of the mirror?
Another important principle in film, similarity and proximity are “any significant repeated element in a film” which helps to create parallelism (66). When the men of Easy Company walk through the forest prior to the discovery of the concentration camp, the shot parallels the Battle of the Bulge—a particularly harrowing battle sequence in the series. The event occurs in a different episode, but the shot and the dialogue cue the viewer to the previous battle in order to create tension as the soldiers continue to move through potentially dangerous terrain.
The principle of difference and variation in tonality, texture, direction, speed of movement, and characters is used to prevent a monotonous sequence of shots. A pattern of shots such as ABACADA cues the viewer through repetition but also provides variation (66). In “Why We Fight,” the episode begins where it ends, but it also moves through a sequence of shots that at times focus on the struggles Captain Nixon faces in juxtaposition to ancillary characters. The costumes, make up, and setting include drab, neutral colors which contrast the outfit and lipstick of the woman in red as well as the yellow Star of David on the prisoner’s attire. These splashes of color are symbolic and intended to draw the viewer's attention. In terms of character, the unworldly replacement officer Pvt. O’Keefe contrasts seasoned soldiers Pvt. Liebgott and Pvt. Perconte who have become disillusioned by the brutality of war. Major Winters—a decorated war hero who never questions the war effort—contrasts Captain Nixon, who has lost his faith in the cause.
Another important principle in film, similarity and proximity are “any significant repeated element in a film” which helps to create parallelism (66). When the men of Easy Company walk through the forest prior to the discovery of the concentration camp, the shot parallels the Battle of the Bulge—a particularly harrowing battle sequence in the series. The event occurs in a different episode, but the shot and the dialogue cue the viewer to the previous battle in order to create tension as the soldiers continue to move through potentially dangerous terrain.
The principle of difference and variation in tonality, texture, direction, speed of movement, and characters is used to prevent a monotonous sequence of shots. A pattern of shots such as ABACADA cues the viewer through repetition but also provides variation (66). In “Why We Fight,” the episode begins where it ends, but it also moves through a sequence of shots that at times focus on the struggles Captain Nixon faces in juxtaposition to ancillary characters. The costumes, make up, and setting include drab, neutral colors which contrast the outfit and lipstick of the woman in red as well as the yellow Star of David on the prisoner’s attire. These splashes of color are symbolic and intended to draw the viewer's attention. In terms of character, the unworldly replacement officer Pvt. O’Keefe contrasts seasoned soldiers Pvt. Liebgott and Pvt. Perconte who have become disillusioned by the brutality of war. Major Winters—a decorated war hero who never questions the war effort—contrasts Captain Nixon, who has lost his faith in the cause.
The development principle refers to the progression of a story (68). Each shot leads us to the next shot in the progression: there is always a beginning, middle, and an end whether the director chooses a linear, circular, or disjointed approach. “Why We Fight” is both circular and linear. As with all of the episodes in the series, testimonies from surviving members of Easy Company precede the credits. The testimonies in this particular episode mirror Ambrose's book: it illustrates the similarities between soldiers fighting on opposite sides of the war. Following the opening credits, the episode begins with a melancholic violin, zooms out to reveal debris and civilians, then segues to a shot of the soldiers standing stoically over the German people. The men stand in a pyramid formation, wearing their uniforms proudly as they stand over the civilian population in the ruins of a small village. We begin and end on this shot for a reason: why might that be?
All of the relationships among elements in a film create the total filmic system which refers to the principle of unity (70). A film that displays disunity lacks closure by ending the narrative on an ambiguous note. (David Lynch films such as Lost Highway and Mulholland Drive leave viewers scratching their heads by the end of the film.) In “Why We Fight,” certain questions are answered whereas others remain uncertain. We know that the war between the U.S. and Germany is over, and Hitler is dead. For the most part, the plot is tight and leaves no loose ends which creates a cohesive, unified narrative. At the same time, the viewers are left to wonder what happened to Captain Nixon following this episode, and the episode fails to mention the ongoing war in Japan.
All of the relationships among elements in a film create the total filmic system which refers to the principle of unity (70). A film that displays disunity lacks closure by ending the narrative on an ambiguous note. (David Lynch films such as Lost Highway and Mulholland Drive leave viewers scratching their heads by the end of the film.) In “Why We Fight,” certain questions are answered whereas others remain uncertain. We know that the war between the U.S. and Germany is over, and Hitler is dead. For the most part, the plot is tight and leaves no loose ends which creates a cohesive, unified narrative. At the same time, the viewers are left to wonder what happened to Captain Nixon following this episode, and the episode fails to mention the ongoing war in Japan.
The construction of the narrative involves plot, cause-effect relationships, and temporal-spatial elements. The plot differs from the overall story: it is everything that is visually and audibly available for the audience. “We create the story in our minds on the basis of clues in the plot” (77). The story includes all of the events and characters onscreen as well as inferred events/characters not shown to us. Viewers understand the story based on a sequence of shots that reveal a time line of events. What do we infer about Easy Company and their experiences together based on the information provided in the dialogue?
Regarding cause and effect, characters of the film are the agents (77). Characters embody certain traits and play an important function in terms of driving the narrative forward through their actions/reactions to events and other characters (78). Even performers in documentaries are “characters” that serve a specific purpose in order to convey a larger narrative. What function does a characters such as Captain Nixon serve in terms of communicating the horrors of war? What function do various “characters” in the My Lai documentary play in terms of driving forward the filmmaker’s rhetorical vision?
Regarding cause and effect, characters of the film are the agents (77). Characters embody certain traits and play an important function in terms of driving the narrative forward through their actions/reactions to events and other characters (78). Even performers in documentaries are “characters” that serve a specific purpose in order to convey a larger narrative. What function does a characters such as Captain Nixon serve in terms of communicating the horrors of war? What function do various “characters” in the My Lai documentary play in terms of driving forward the filmmaker’s rhetorical vision?
Based on what viewers see on the screen, they create a sense of time and space in their minds. Time can be chronological and/or indicate duration. According to Bordwell and Thompson, “A film does not just start, it begins” (86). The temporal order of a film uses a sequence of shots to convey transitions in time. Flash backs, flash forwards, and flash sideways are used to create a timeline of events that communicate something about the larger narrative structure. In “Why We Fight,” what is happening at the opening and closing of the episode? How do viewers become aware of the duration of events and movement to different locations based on cues provided by the film maker? How much “time” is covered in an hour? How do the testimonies at the beginning of the film enlarge upon this time frame?
A film such as Saving Private Ryan begins in media res (i.e. in the middle of action). In the My Lai documentary, the film begins with Charlie Company in Hawaii; leads viewers into the events that precipitated the attack at on “Pinkville”; discusses the event; sheds light on the short and long term consequences of the events in conjunction with the release of Ron Haeberle’s photographs. There is a clear beginning, middle, and end with various soldiers and journalists providing eyewitness and second hand accounts of events. Both narrative and documentary films rely on mise-en-scene, sound, and editing to create a dramatic effect that holds the viewer's attention.
According to Bordwell and Thompson, realism is the standard by which all films are evaluated (117). Steven Spielberg's Saving Private Ryan has been hailed as the most realistic war film in cinematic history. Yet, Howard Zinn argues in “Film and History” that Spielberg’s portrayal fails to accurately depict the true horrors of war but rather sensationalizes war and reinforces patriotic and nationalistic ideologies (246). Zinn states: “Any history is a selection of data from an enormous base, with the historian (or filmmaker) deciding what to include and what to omit. Therefore ‘nonfiction’ can be as fictional or more fictional than fiction” (246). In order to make a point, the director of "Why We Fight" focuses specifically on the climatic tension leading up to the discovery and liberation of the concentration camp, but in doing so s/he dramatizes the event in a way that re-presents the testimonies of Easy Company as opposed to using first person testimony. In comparison, Ambrose provides the testimony of Major Winters in his written historical account: "The memory of starved, dazed men," Winters wrote, "who dropped their eyes and heads when we looked at them through the chain-link fence, in the same manner that a beaten, mistreated dog would cringe, leaves feelings that cannot be described and will never be forgotten. The impact of seeing those people behind that fence left me saying, only to myself, 'Now I know why I am here!'” (105) Regardless of the ways in which these testimonies are "framed," the underlying message remains the same: This is the true face of war. This is why we fight.
A film such as Saving Private Ryan begins in media res (i.e. in the middle of action). In the My Lai documentary, the film begins with Charlie Company in Hawaii; leads viewers into the events that precipitated the attack at on “Pinkville”; discusses the event; sheds light on the short and long term consequences of the events in conjunction with the release of Ron Haeberle’s photographs. There is a clear beginning, middle, and end with various soldiers and journalists providing eyewitness and second hand accounts of events. Both narrative and documentary films rely on mise-en-scene, sound, and editing to create a dramatic effect that holds the viewer's attention.
According to Bordwell and Thompson, realism is the standard by which all films are evaluated (117). Steven Spielberg's Saving Private Ryan has been hailed as the most realistic war film in cinematic history. Yet, Howard Zinn argues in “Film and History” that Spielberg’s portrayal fails to accurately depict the true horrors of war but rather sensationalizes war and reinforces patriotic and nationalistic ideologies (246). Zinn states: “Any history is a selection of data from an enormous base, with the historian (or filmmaker) deciding what to include and what to omit. Therefore ‘nonfiction’ can be as fictional or more fictional than fiction” (246). In order to make a point, the director of "Why We Fight" focuses specifically on the climatic tension leading up to the discovery and liberation of the concentration camp, but in doing so s/he dramatizes the event in a way that re-presents the testimonies of Easy Company as opposed to using first person testimony. In comparison, Ambrose provides the testimony of Major Winters in his written historical account: "The memory of starved, dazed men," Winters wrote, "who dropped their eyes and heads when we looked at them through the chain-link fence, in the same manner that a beaten, mistreated dog would cringe, leaves feelings that cannot be described and will never be forgotten. The impact of seeing those people behind that fence left me saying, only to myself, 'Now I know why I am here!'” (105) Regardless of the ways in which these testimonies are "framed," the underlying message remains the same: This is the true face of war. This is why we fight.
understanding plot: How linguistic & audio/visual elements operate in tandem
The narrative construction of any film relies heavily relies on the plot in the "framing" of events through the use of linguistic and audio/visual elements. In “Why We Fight,” the dialogue and plot shape the characters of Captain Lewis Nixon, Major Dick Winters, and Private Patrick O’Keefe in meaningful ways. Even though these characters are based on actual soldiers, they are still constructed by the poetics of the text (i.e. the script). The writing process precedes filming, and various rhetorical devices operate in tandem to compose a unified narrative.
During the exposition of the episode’s plot, the writers reveal that the protagonist, Captain Nixon, has developed a drinking problem as a result of witnessing the horrors of warfare. Major Winters epitomizes the very essence of heroism and leadership, a man who believes unwaveringly in the duty, honor, and loyalty of being a soldier. Pvt. O’Keefe, a replacement, represents the disillusionment of a naïve young soldier thirsty to “see some action.” All of these characters are shaped based on the dialogue they exchange with one another and the progression of the plot.
The complication of the plot ensues as Capt. Nixon discovers that his wife plans to leave him and take his dog with her. He struggles to find his favorite whiskey in order to ease his psychological suffering, so he begins looting. The writers cleverly incorporate a scene where Nixon breaks into an S.S. officer’s home to find whiskey only to be confronted by an older woman in a red dress, presumably the officer’s wife. A drawn out silence written into the scripts conveys the tension between these two characters in the present moment in order to mirror Capt. Nixon’s troubled relationship with his estranged wife. He glimpses in the foyer to see a dog barking at him, then back at the woman in red who glares back at him. Nixon takes a long, exasperated look at the barking dog as he closes the door behind him. This scene dramatizes the psychological toll of warfare on those who are both directly and indirectly involved in the war.
During the rising action of the episode, members of Easy Company set out in armored vehicles to witness the recently-surrendered German troops march through town. The dialogue exchanged amongst Major Winters and Capt. Nixon emphasizes the proud and dignified nature in which the Nazi officers carried themselves, even in surrender. Webster ruminates how he intends to return to college after returning home from the war, then snaps when he sees the herd of German soldiers. “Dragging our asses halfway around the world, interrupting our lives…What the FUCK are we doing here?” This simple line of dialogue refers back to the title of the episode: why we fight. The answer looms right around the corner of the narrative.
Shortly thereafter, a group of soldiers walk slowly through a patch of woods. The camera speed slows down as a buzzing sound--an electric fence, perhaps?--creates a sense of foreboding as the men proceed with caution. The scene cuts to a shot of Pvt. Perconte running through the forest, then a shot of him scurrying through town as he searches frantically for Major Winters. This scene creates tension as it leads into the climax of the plot: discovering a concentration camp with countless emaciated prisoners. The writers craft this scene in a manner that effectively draws out the tension before unveiling the climactic trauma. The moment the gates are opened and the walk through of the camp begins, the audience is intended to witness the exact same event firsthand. The visual effects are extremely graphic and effective, but the performative could not exist with the poetics of the text that informed the “framing” of the scene. The writers moved through different scenes to reveal the horrifying living conditions of concentration camp life. At one point, Pvt. O’Keefe sits next to a trench filled with dead bodies as he stares off into space: his romanticized view of war no longer exists.
The falling action involves stocking up on bread and water to feed the prisoners only to be informed by a medic that the soldiers must lock the prisoners in the camp again in order to prevent them from eating themselves to death. Joseph Liebgott, a member of Easy Company who is portrayed as Jewish, is asked to translate this order to the newly released prisoners. While the prisoners protest, Liebgott breaks down into sobs; this rhetorical move connects the Americans directly to the Jewish cause and solidifies empathic identification.
The denouement brings us back to the beginning of the episode. A group of musicians play Beethoven, German residents work to clean up the demolished remains of their city, and members of Easy Company stand above them in a rhetorical move that illustrates heroism, superiority, righteousness, and a sense of patriotism and nationalistic pride. Capt. Nixon announces, “Hitler’s dead” and comments on how much time they could have saved if he had committed suicide a few years prior. The closing remarks and somber musical selection leaves the audience to ponder the devastating effects of the Holocaust.
All of these rhetorical decisions serve a purpose in order to achieve a desired response from the audience. What are the underlying goals of the rhetor? How does the rhetor use persuasive appeals, literary devices, and/or visual elements to shape a successful multimodal composition?
During the exposition of the episode’s plot, the writers reveal that the protagonist, Captain Nixon, has developed a drinking problem as a result of witnessing the horrors of warfare. Major Winters epitomizes the very essence of heroism and leadership, a man who believes unwaveringly in the duty, honor, and loyalty of being a soldier. Pvt. O’Keefe, a replacement, represents the disillusionment of a naïve young soldier thirsty to “see some action.” All of these characters are shaped based on the dialogue they exchange with one another and the progression of the plot.
The complication of the plot ensues as Capt. Nixon discovers that his wife plans to leave him and take his dog with her. He struggles to find his favorite whiskey in order to ease his psychological suffering, so he begins looting. The writers cleverly incorporate a scene where Nixon breaks into an S.S. officer’s home to find whiskey only to be confronted by an older woman in a red dress, presumably the officer’s wife. A drawn out silence written into the scripts conveys the tension between these two characters in the present moment in order to mirror Capt. Nixon’s troubled relationship with his estranged wife. He glimpses in the foyer to see a dog barking at him, then back at the woman in red who glares back at him. Nixon takes a long, exasperated look at the barking dog as he closes the door behind him. This scene dramatizes the psychological toll of warfare on those who are both directly and indirectly involved in the war.
During the rising action of the episode, members of Easy Company set out in armored vehicles to witness the recently-surrendered German troops march through town. The dialogue exchanged amongst Major Winters and Capt. Nixon emphasizes the proud and dignified nature in which the Nazi officers carried themselves, even in surrender. Webster ruminates how he intends to return to college after returning home from the war, then snaps when he sees the herd of German soldiers. “Dragging our asses halfway around the world, interrupting our lives…What the FUCK are we doing here?” This simple line of dialogue refers back to the title of the episode: why we fight. The answer looms right around the corner of the narrative.
Shortly thereafter, a group of soldiers walk slowly through a patch of woods. The camera speed slows down as a buzzing sound--an electric fence, perhaps?--creates a sense of foreboding as the men proceed with caution. The scene cuts to a shot of Pvt. Perconte running through the forest, then a shot of him scurrying through town as he searches frantically for Major Winters. This scene creates tension as it leads into the climax of the plot: discovering a concentration camp with countless emaciated prisoners. The writers craft this scene in a manner that effectively draws out the tension before unveiling the climactic trauma. The moment the gates are opened and the walk through of the camp begins, the audience is intended to witness the exact same event firsthand. The visual effects are extremely graphic and effective, but the performative could not exist with the poetics of the text that informed the “framing” of the scene. The writers moved through different scenes to reveal the horrifying living conditions of concentration camp life. At one point, Pvt. O’Keefe sits next to a trench filled with dead bodies as he stares off into space: his romanticized view of war no longer exists.
The falling action involves stocking up on bread and water to feed the prisoners only to be informed by a medic that the soldiers must lock the prisoners in the camp again in order to prevent them from eating themselves to death. Joseph Liebgott, a member of Easy Company who is portrayed as Jewish, is asked to translate this order to the newly released prisoners. While the prisoners protest, Liebgott breaks down into sobs; this rhetorical move connects the Americans directly to the Jewish cause and solidifies empathic identification.
The denouement brings us back to the beginning of the episode. A group of musicians play Beethoven, German residents work to clean up the demolished remains of their city, and members of Easy Company stand above them in a rhetorical move that illustrates heroism, superiority, righteousness, and a sense of patriotism and nationalistic pride. Capt. Nixon announces, “Hitler’s dead” and comments on how much time they could have saved if he had committed suicide a few years prior. The closing remarks and somber musical selection leaves the audience to ponder the devastating effects of the Holocaust.
All of these rhetorical decisions serve a purpose in order to achieve a desired response from the audience. What are the underlying goals of the rhetor? How does the rhetor use persuasive appeals, literary devices, and/or visual elements to shape a successful multimodal composition?